Notes:
Note 1: "Welles Family Genealogy," box 7, folders 67, Welles papers, FDRL; Fred Rodell, "Sumner Welles: Diplomat de luxe," by Fred Rodell, American Mercury, November 1945; John Milton Cooper, Jr., The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1983), 11. Back.
Note 2: Benjamin Welles, Sumner Welles: FDR''s Global Strategist (New York: St. Martin''s Press, 1997); Welles to Bailey, March 8, 1948, box 129, folder 9, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 3: Benjamin Welles, Sumner Welles: FDR''s Global Strategist, 11; Frank Ashburn, Peabody of Groton: A Portrait, (New York: Coward, 1944), 112114. Back.
Note 4: Harvard Annual, 1914; Benjamin Welles, Sumner Welles: FDR's Global Strategist, 19; Rodell, "Sumner Welles. Back.
Note 5: Harvard Annual, 1914; Harvard Class of 1914 Report, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1920); Sumner Welles, "Civic and National Personality," c.1916, box 205, folder 2, Welles papers, FDRL; Benjamin Welles, Sumner Welles: FDR's Global Strategist, 11. Back.
Note 6: Welles to Roosevelt, March 1, 1915; Roosevelt to Welles, March 15, 1915; Roosevelt to William Jennings Bryan, March 15, 1915, all in FDR Papers as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, 1913-21, FDRL Rodell, "Sumner Welles.". Back.
Note 7: Lawrence E. Gelfand, "The Mystique of Wilsonian Statecraft," Diplomatic History 7:2 (Spring 1983): 87-101; Welles to Roosevelt, March 15, 1915, FDR Papers as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, FDRL; Sumner Welles, The Time For Decision (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1944), 3. Back.
Note 8: Boston Morning Journal, April 15, 1915; "Overall History of D.O.S." (Sumner Welles) 4E3, 6/29/D, Box 1, RG 59, War History Branch Studies, National Archives; Benjamin Welles, Sumner Welles: FDR's Global Strategist, 41-62. Back.
Note 9: Bruce J. Calder, The Impact of Intervention: The Dominican Republic During the U.S. Occupation of 1916-24 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984), 204-205; Welles to Josephus Daniels, May 7, 1927, box 23, folder 9, Welles papers, FDRL; Bainbridge Colby to Welles, May 25, 1920, box 23, folder 2, Welles papers, FDRL; Welles to Norman Davis, August 19, 1921, box 63, Davis papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress. Colby frequently praised Welles's work to President Wilson, and Welles occasionally met with the president to discuss questions related to the administration's Latin American policies during these years. For more on the view that it was the Wilson administration that took the first practical steps toward repairing relations with Latin America, see Daniel M. Smith, "Bainbridge Colby and the Good Neighbor Policy, 1920-1921," The Mississippi Valley Historical Review 50:1 (June 1963): 56-78. Back.
Note 10: Sumner Welles, "Is America Imperialistic?" Atlantic Monthly, September 1924. For an excellent examination of Welles's views of U.S. policy toward the Caribbean, see Gail Hanson, "Ordered Liberty: Sumner Welles and the Crowder-Welles Connection in the Caribbean," Diplomatic History 18:3 (1994): 311-332. Hanson concludes that Welles's efforts to check disorder and instability in the Caribbean established a useful pattern for Washington's post-World War II relations with the Third World. Back.
Note 11: "In my opinion," Welles, who was not prone to flattery, wrote to Hughes in 1922, "there has never been a period in the history of the country when the foreign relations of the United States were so ably directed as they are by you today." Welles to Charles Evans Hughes, March 15, 1922, box 23, folder 3, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 12: In 1942 Esther eventually retained the services of Henry Stimson, Roosevelt's secretary of war, to recoup some of the money owed to her by Welles. See Benjamin Welles, Sumner Welles: FDR's Global Strategist, 95, 389. Back.
Note 13: Bainbridge Colby to Welles, March 20, 1922, box 23, folder 3, Welles papers, FDRL; Welles to Charles Evans Hughes, March 6, 1925, box 23, folder 5, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 14: Welles to Norman Davis, April 29, 1926, Davis papers, Library of Congress; "Overall History of D.O.S." (Sumner Welles) 4E3, 6/29/D, Box 1, RG 59, War History Branch Studies, National Archives; The Nation, August 1, 1942; Welles to Hughes, October 23, 1922, Foreign Relations of the United States [hereafter referred to as FRUS], 1924, vol. II (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1939) 75-76. Back.
Note 15: When Joseph Grew replaced William Phillips as under secretary in early 1924, Welles's mistress, the heiress Mathilde Townsend Gerry, wrote to Welles in Santo Domingo, "How stupid of old Charles Evans to give that drunken Joe Grew Phillips's place and not you." Mathilde Townsend to Welles, March 10, 1924, box 19, folder 4, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 16: Norman Davis to Welles, September 2, 1925; Welles to Davis, April 23, 1926, Welles to Davis, April 29, 1926, box 63, Norman Davis papers, Library of Congress; Welles, The Time For Decision, 188; "Welles/Slater divorce papers," box 19, folder 1, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 17: "Mathilde Welles: Autobiography: My Girlhood Days," box 19, folder 8, Welles papers, FDRL; "Mathilde Welles: Autobiography: Today," box 20, folder 9, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 18: "Mathilde Welles: Autobiography: 1910-1925," box 19, folder 6, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 19: "Oxon Hill: Architecture and Survey," box 9, folder 6, Welles papers, FDRL; interview with Mary White of the Oxon Hill Manor Foundation, April 4, 1996, Oxon Hill, Maryland; "Mathilde Welles: Autobiography: Oxon Hill Manor," box 19, folder 10, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 20: The book took its name from the Biblical story (found in I Kings, chapter 21), in which Naboth is murdered at the instigation of Jezebel so she can obtain a vineyard. In Welles's telling, the vineyard represented the Dominican Republic and the United States, Jezebel. Back.
Note 21: Sumner Welles, Naboth's Vineyard: The Dominican Republic, 1844-1924 (New York: Dayson and Clark, 1928), 936-937. Back.
Note 22: Welles memorandum to Roosevelt, January 20, 1928, FDR Papers: Family, Business and Personal Correspondence, FDRL; Roosevelt to Welles, February 24, 1928, box 148, Welles papers, FDRL; Welles to Roosevelt, September 27, 1928, box 148, Welles papers, FDRL; Eleanor Roosevelt to Welles, September 13, 1928, Welles to Eleanor Roosevelt, September 27, 1928, box 148, Welles papers, FDRL; Welles to Eleanor Roosevelt, November 9, 1928, box 148, folder 8, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 23: "Washington Democratic Meeting Address," 1928, box 194, folder 1, speech files, Welles papers, FDRL; "Campaign Speech, 1928," box 194, folder 2, speech files, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 24: Roosevelt to Welles, March 7, 1928, box 148, Welles papers, FDRL; Roosevelt telegram to Welles, June 1, 1928, box 148, Welles papers, FDRL; Roosevelt to Welles, July 7, 1928, box 148, Welles papers, FDRL; "Our Foreign Policy: A Democratic View," by Franklin D. Roosevelt, Foreign Affairs, July 28, 1928, FDR papers: Articles by FDR, FDRL; Roosevelt to Welles, September 8, 1928, box 148, Welles papers, FDRL; Welles to Norman Davis, February 17, 1931, box 63, Davis papers, Library of Congress Manuscript Division. Back.
Note 25: Welles to Roosevelt, February 17, 1931, box 148, folder 10, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 26: Welles draft of Democratic Party statement, 1932, box 148, folder 12, Welles papers, FDRL; Welles to Marguerite LeHand, October 27, 1932, box 148, folder 11, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 27: Welles to Norman Davis, November 19, 1932, box 63, Davis papers, Library of Congress. Back.
Note 28: Baltimore Post, September 28, 1932. Back.
Note 29: Roosevelt to Welles, March 9, 1932, President's Personal File [PPF] 2961, FDRL; Welles to Roosevelt, December 19, 1932, PPF 2961, FDRL; Roosevelt to Welles, February 1, 1933, PPF 2961, FDRL; Eleanor Roosevelt to Sumner Welles, December 7, 1932, box 148, Welles papers, FDRL; Eleanor Roosevelt to Mathilde Welles, February 17, 1933, box 149, folder 2, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 30: For an account of Hull's inability to control U.S. foreign policy see, for example, Julius Pratt, "The Ordeal of Cordell Hull," Review of Politics 28 (January 1966): 76-98. Back.
Note 31: Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation (New York: W. W. Norton, 1969), 9-11. Back.
Note 32: Irwin F. Gellman, Secret Affairs: Franklin Roosevelt, Cordell Hull, and Sumner Welles (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 161, 25-26. Back.
Note 33: Louis B. Wehle, Hidden Threads of History: Wilson Through Roosevelt (New York: Macmillan, 1953), 115; Julius W. Pratt, Cordell Hull (New York: Cooper Square, 1964), 16-19; Acheson, Present at the Creation, 8-9. Back.
Note 34: John Gunther, Roosevelt in Retrospect: A Profile in History (New York: Harper, 1950), 131132. Back.
Note 35: FO 371/21541 "Records of Leading Personalities in the U.S.," January 12, 1937, British Public Record Office [hereafter cited as PRO]. Back.
Note 36: Time, February 13, 1939; Collier's, April 22, 1939. Back.
Note 37: Welles to Pearson, June 12, 1933, box 146, folder 8, Welles papers, FDRL; Welles to Pearson, June 8, 1933, box 146, folder 8, Welles papers, FDRL; Pearson to Welles, August 11, 1933, box 146, folder 8, Welles papers, FDRL; Drew Pearson to Welles, July 23, 1937, box 146, folder 9, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 38: Welles to FDR: "A Memorandum on Inter-American Relations," January 10, 1933, box 149, folder 1, Welles papers, FDRL. For a more detailed examination of this document see Charles C. Griffin, ed., "Document Section: Welles to Roosevelt: A Memorandum on Inter-American Relations, 1933," Hispanic American Historical Review 34:2 (May 1954): 190-192. Back.
Note 39: Welles to Hull, April 4, 1933, with annex: "Memorandum for the President," by Welles, box 149, folder 1, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 40: Welles to Roosevelt, April 6, 1933, box 149, folder 1, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 41: Welles to Hull, April 7, 1933, box 149, folder 1, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 42: Press statement by Welles, April 24, 1933, FRUS, 1933, vol. V, 278; Welles memorandum of conversation with Roosevelt and Charles Taussig, April 24, 1933, box 149, folder 1, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 43: For Welles's mission to Cuba see Irwin F. Gellman, Roosevelt and Batista: Good Neighbor Diplomacy in Cuba, 1933-1945 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1973), 3568; as well as Louis A. Perez, Jr., Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990), 193-201; E. David Cronon, "Interpreting the New Good Neighbor Policy: The Cuban Crisis of 1933," Hispanic American Historical Review 39 (November 1959): 538-567; Louis A. Perez, Jr. "Army Politics, Diplomacy and the Collapse of the Cuban Officer Corps: the 'Sergeant's Revolt' of 1933," Latin American Studies 6:1 (1974): 59-76; William S. Stokes, "The Welles Mission to Cuba," Central America and Mexico 1 (December 1953): 3-21; Luis E. Aguilar, Cuba 1933 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972). Back.
Note 44: Welles to Pearson, May 17, 1933, box 146, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 45: Welles to Pearson, May 17, 1933, box 146, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 46: This feat brought Welles to the attention of the nation, as he was profiled in numerous magazines and newspapers. A New York Times headline called him "Our Man of the Hour in Cuba." New York Times Magazine, August 20, 1933. Back.
Note 47: Welles to Hull, August 12, 1933, FRUS, 1933, vol. V, 358-359. Back.
Note 48: Welles to Hull, August 19, 1933, FRUS, 1933, vol. V, 367-368. Back.
Note 49: According to Louis Perez, "the new regime was overshadowed by the omnipresence of the American Minister." See Perez, "Army Politics, Diplomacy and the Collapse of the Cuban Officer Corps," 60. Back.
Note 50: Telephone conversation between Hull and Welles, September 5, 1933, FRUS, 1933, vol. V, 386; "Mathilde Welles Autobiography: Cuba," box 19, folder 1, Welles papers, FDRL; Americana, October 1933. More detailed accounts of these events can be found in Perez, Cuba and the United States, 193201; and Gellman, Roosevelt and Batista, 35-68. Welles even employed the specter of communism in Cuba in an attempt to obtain Hull's backing for intervention. See Robert E. Bowers, "Hull, Russian Subversion in Cuba, and Recognition of the USSR," Journal of American History 53:3 (December 1966), 549. Back.
Note 51: "Mathilde Welles Autobiography: Cuba," box 19, folder 1, Welles papers, FDRL; Welles to Roosevelt, May 18, 1933, Official File 470, FDRL; Roosevelt to Welles, June 24, 1933, Official File 470, FDRL; Welles to Roosevelt, July 7, 1933, Official File 470, FDRL; memorandum of conversation between Hull and Welles, September 5, 1933, FRUS, 1933, vol. V, 386-87; Phillips to Roosevelt, November 23, 1933, FRUS, 1933, vol. V, 525-26; Time, February 19, 1940, 15; Cordell Hull, The Memoirs of Cordell Hull, vol. 1 (New York: Macmillan, 1948), 315-317. Back.
Note 52: See, for example, the essay by Gerald K. Haines, "Has Anything Changed? The United States and Its Relations with Latin America," Diplomatic History 17:4 (Fall 1993): 627-631. Back.
Note 53: For example, when the Dominican Republic's strongman Rafael Trujillo subsequently demanded that Washington replace its U.S.-appointed collector of customs, Welles suggested that "the Dominican Government will have to be told just where it gets off." Welles to Pulliman, August 24, 1933, box 147, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 54: See David Schmitz, Thank God They're On Our Side: The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1921-1965 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999). Throughout the era of the Good Neighbor Policy, regional leaders became highly skilled at discerning Washington's desires. "When Welles and Hull spoke of a government capable of guaranteeing order," writes Lester Langley, "Batista provided one." See, for example, Langley, The United States and the Caribbean in the Twentieth Century (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1980), 134. Back.
Note 55: For an argument that the Good Neighbor Policy pursued traditional U.S. goals in Latin America merely through new rhetorical approaches, see David Green, The Containment of Latin America: A History of the Myths and Realities of the Good Neighbor Policy (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1971). For a more orthodox account, see Irwin Gellman, Good Neighbor Policy: United States Policies in Latin America, 1933-1945 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Still, Gellman explains that the Good Neighbor Policy sought to concede only those U.S. advantages that had already become obsolete while retaining those it still considered necessary to its national interests. Gerald K. Haines has argued that Roosevelt and Welles justified their policy of supporting repressive dictatorships by claiming that they were technically "republics." See Gerald K. Haines, "Under the Eagle's Wing: The Franklin Roosevelt Administration Forges An American Hemisphere," Diplomatic History 1:4 (Fall 1977): 374. Paul Varg has explained that the Good Neighbor Policy aimed merely to maintain the economic dominance of the United States in the region. See Varg, "The Economic Side of the Good Neighbor Policy: The Reciprocal Trade Program and South America," Pacific Historical Review 45:1 (February 1976): 70-71. Back.
Note 56: Memoranda of conversations between Welles and roosevelt regarding Cuba, January 26 and 30, 1934, box 149, folder 2, Welles papers, FDRL; memorandum of conversations between Welles and Roosevelt regarding Cuba, March 3, 1934, box 149, folder 2, Welles papers, FDRL; memorandum of conversation between Welles and Roosevelt, August 14, 1934, box 149, folder 2, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 57: Sumner Welles, "On the Margin of War," delivered at the Meeting of the Foreign Ministers of the American Republics, Panama, September 25, 1939,speech files, box 194, folder 13, Welles papers, FDRL; Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-45 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 122-24, 175-76. Welles received much of the credit for the Good Neighbor Policy at the time. In a revealing "tell-all" article in the New York Herald Tribune in the autumn of 1936, William Castle, former under secretary of state (1931-1933) wrote that it "would probably be fair to say that Mr. Hull generally becomes aware of American policy in Latin America only after the fact," and that Welles "is perfectly willing to assume responsibility and to act independently even when such action may possibly be contrary to the policy of the Secretary." New York Herald Tribune, October 18, 1936. Such stories did little to improve the Welles-Hull relationship. Back.
Note 58: Sumner Welles, "On the Margin of War," delivered at the Meeting of the Foreign Ministers of the American Republics, Panama, September 25, 1939, speech files, box 194, folder 13, Welles papers, FDRL. Back.
Note 59: For Welles's belief in the exportability of the "American system," see his speeches "On the Margin of War," op. cit.; and "The Victory of Peace,"delivered February 26, 1943, speech files, box 196, folder 1, Welles papers, FDRL; as well as Welles, The Time For Decision, 240-241. For an account of how Roosevelt and Welles sought to use the Western Hemisphere as a model for regionalism during the Second World War, see Warren Kimball's essay "'Baffled Virtue ... Injured Innocence': The Western Hemisphere as Regional Role Model," in Warren F. Kimball, The Juggler: Franklin D. Roosevelt as Wartime Statesman (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 107-125. Back.
Sumner Welles, Postwar Planning, and the Quest for a New World Order, 1937-1943
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